The Lipscomb Clinic Sports Medicine Center

WRESTLERS AND WEIGHT CONTROL

I. FUEL SOURCES

Fuel (calories) is provided in the diet by carbohydrate, protein, and fat. Although total calorie intake is impor-tant, calorie source has a greater impact on performance. Consuming adequate calories without the appropriate balance between fuel sources can have a detrimental effect on performance.

A. Carbohydrate

Carbohydrate is the most important fuel source for an athlete's performance. It is the only fuel that can be used anaerobically. In the first few minutes of endurance activity, carbohydrate is used almost exclusively for energy. It is the primary fuel for high-intensity, short-duration activities such as sprinting and weight lifting. If carbohydrate stores are low, performance will suffer. Carbohydrate intake has an important role in the maintenance of blood glucose levels and in glycogen synthesis and storage.

Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrate and is found in the liver and muscles. Liver glycogen helps maintain blood glucose levels; muscle glycogen helps fuel muscle activity. Inadequate liver glycogen can lead to hypo-glycemia, whereas inadequate muscle glycogen can lead to staleness, early fatigue, and decreased performance.

Without supplemental carbohydrate, glycogen depletion may occur during events lasting more than 60 minutes.

Multiple events or training sessions in a single day or repeated sessions of high-intensity, short-duration exercise can also deplete glycogen stores. Glycogen depletion may also be gradual and occur after several days of inadequate replacement.   During endurance activity, as glycogen levels decrease, high-intensity levels cannot be maintained, and the athlete will begin to slow down. If glycogen depletion occurs as a result of several days of inadequate replacement, the athlete may complain of feeling sluggish or stale and will not be able to maintain usual performance standards. A sign of glycogen depletion is a sudden weight loss that cannot be accounted for through a fluid imbalance or inadequate caloric intake.  Although recent evidence suggests that both simple and complex carbohydrates promote adequate glycogen storage, it is suggested that athletes consume more complex than simple carbohydrates to help meet overall nutrient requirements.

It is recommended that athletes consume most of their total calories from carbohydrates. The suggested level is
60% to 70% of total calories. The more intense the activity, the longer the duration, and the more frequent the sessions, the closer the intake should be to 70%. Simple sugars should provide no more than 12% of total carbohydrate intake.

B. Protein

The protein requirement for athletes is controversial. There is general agreement that the current recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of 0.8 g/kg is not adequate for athletes, but there is disagreement as to what the requirement should be. Current recommendations range from 0.8 to 3.0 g/kg. Protein needs appear to be affected by fitness level; exercise type, intensity, and duration; total calories; and carbohydrate intake.

Even though exercise increases protein needs, most athletes are not at risk of being protein deficient. Diet surveys have shown that the average dietary intake of most athletes provides more than enough protein to meet any increased needs, although certain groups are at risk of protein deficiency. These groups include athletes who are strict vegetarians and do not properly combine plant proteins; do not consume enough calories to maintain weight; engage in multiple daily training sessions; and consume an extremely high-carbohydrate, low protein diet.

Although controversy exists regarding the proper protein intake for athletes, based on the literature, 1 to 1.5 g of protein per kilogram of body weight or 12% to 15% of daily calories is appropriate. For a healthy athlete, there appear to be few, if any, benefits associated with higher protein intakes.

Consuming a high-protein diet is a popular practice among athletes, but this practice has potential side effects. A high protein intake is often associated with a higher fat intake, which could lead to increased body fat and increased risk of elevated blood lipids. Excessive intake may also increase the risk of dehydration through increased urea production and excretion. High levels of protein intake are also associated with increased risk of gout and increased calcium excretion. All of these potential side effects may have a negative effect on health and performance.

C. Protein/Amino Acid Supplements

Some athletes believe that consuming a high level of protein or amino acids will have an ergogenic effect and enhance training efforts by increasing muscle size and/or strength more quickly. Research evidence supports the belief that strength and endurance athletes have increased protein needs, but studies have shown that the average diet provides more than enough protein to meet these increased needs. Intake of additional protein or amino acids does not appear to affect muscle size or strength if initial protein and calorie intakes are adequate.

Another popular belief is that amino acids are more easily digested and absorbed than are whole proteins and that they convert to muscle much faster than whole proteins do. There is evidence that amino acids may be absorbed more quickly, but there is none for benefits associated with quicker absorption. It takes hours for proteins to be built by the body, and all the necessary amino acids must be present for this to occur. If one essential amino acid is missing, the protein cannot be made. Individual supplementa-tion is of concern in that amino acids compete for absorption in the gut. If the concentration of one amino acid is high, absorption of other amino acids may be inhibited. Ultimately, supplementation with individual amino acids could impair rather than improve protein status.

Many athletes believe that amino acids increase muscle mass and decrease body fat. There is little evidence to support this belief, although supplements containing a combination of arginine and ornithine may be an exception. A recent study concluded that an oral supplement containing high doses (1 g each) of these amino acids enhanced the effects of resistance training and produced greater increases in lean body mass and strength and greater decreases in body fat than expected with resistance training alone. This was thought to be from stimulation of growth hormone release. This study contradicts others that have shown little or no beneficial effects with oral supplementation.

D. Fat

Utilization of fat for energy is dependent on exercise intensity and duration. At rest and at low to moderate exercise intensity, fat is the primary fuel source. As intensity increases, the reliance is greater on carbohydrate than on fat because of decreased oxygen availability. In high-intensity, short-duration activities (weight lifting, sprinting), carbohydrate is the exclusive fuel source. As

glycogen stores become depleted, fat must provide a greater percentage of fuel for exercise to continue. When this occurs, intensity causes metabolic changes that enhance the body's ability to burn fat as fuel.

Gender also appears to play a role in fat utilization. In endurance activities, women appear to burn fat more readily than men do, probably because of hormonal differences.

Fat is a significant source of energy. One pound of fat (0.45 kg) provides 3,500 calories, whereas the typical athlete only stores approximately 2,000 total glycogen calories. Because glycogen depletion is the limiting factor in endurance performance, it would seem reasonable to look for ways to spare glycogen by increasing reliance on the almost unlimited energy supply provided by fat.

E. Caffeine

Consuming caffeine before an event has been popularized as a way to enhance performance, through increased utilization of fat for energy. This practice is based on the belief that caffeine elevates the level of free fatty acids in the serum, causing more fatty acids to be burned for energy, thereby sparing glycogen and delaying time to exhaustion. This is a controversial area, with studies showing conflicting results.

Any potential benefits of this practice should be weighed against the possible risks. Stomach upset from increased gastric acid secretion has been reported by some athletes. The diuretic effect of caffeine may negatively affect fluid balance. Diarrhea may occur and lead to dehydration. Any of these side effects could impair performance.

Some athletes consume caffeine pills in an effort to ingest a large amount of caffeine in a short time. Caffeine pills are not recommended. At doses high enough to cause excretion of 12 µg of caffeine per milliliter of urine, caffeine is considered a doping agent and is banned by the International Olympic Committee.

F. Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamin and/or mineral supplements frequently are used by athletes for several reasons. The primary reason is the belief that certain vitamins and minerals have the ability to supercharge performance and enhance training efforts. No evidence exists to support this claim. Vitamins and minerals have specific functions in the body, and no conclusive ergogenic effects are associated with consumption of large amounts of one or more. Megadoses are not associated with improved performance and may lead to toxicity and cause illness or death.

G. Hydration

Proper hydration is the single most important nutri- tional factor affecting athletic performance. Some athletes restrict fluid intake because of the mistaken idea that fluid consumed during exercise will cause nausea, bloating, cramps, and/or impaired performance. The exact opposite is true. Ample research has shown that consumption of water (even fairly large amounts) immediately before exercise has little, if any adverse effect on performance. (An exception would be when amounts excessive enough to cause water intoxication are consumed.) In a study of endurance athletes who drank 4 to 6 cups (1 to 1.5 l) of water 5 minutes before exercise, performance was not adversely affected.

Some athletes believe fluid balance will be maintained if they drink when thirsty and until thirst is satisfied. Ample research has demonstrate that this is not true. Thirst is not a sensitive indicator of fluid status. Studies have shown that decreased thirst sensation is a side effect of exercise. By the time thirst is experienced, fluid losses of up to 1% of total body weight have occurred. Also, thirst is quenched before fluid needs are fully satisfied. All of this places the athlete relying on thirst for fluid replacement in jeopardy of experiencing a significant fluid imbalance. Studies have also shown that significant fluid loss can occur over a period of time when fluid needs are not met, as in multiple activities in 1 day or consecutive days of training in the heat and inadequate replacement.

One problem experienced with fluid loss is impaired temperature regulation. Exercising muscles generate heat that must be dissipated. If it is not, core temperature begins to increase and heat injury may result.

H. Hydration Guidelines

Extensive research has focused on proper hydration guidelines for athletes. Many studies have shown that athletes should be fully hydrated before exercise, whether in training or competition.

Two important measurements for monitoring fluid status are body weight and urine output. Athletes should weigh themselves before and after an exercise session. For each pound (0.45 kg) lost during exercise, 16 oz (0.5 l) of fluid should be consumed. Fluid losses should be replaced within 24 hours. If an athlete is not within 1 to 2 lbs (0.45 to

1 kg) of the previous day's weight, exercise should not be engaged in until the losses have been replaced. Significant dehydration can occur after several days of inadequate fluid replacement.

Although opinions vary as to the precise amount of fluid to consume, it is generally agreed that fluid should be consumed before, during, and after exercise.

I. Type of Fluid

Absorption is the primary consideration in determining the appropriate fluid. A fluid should be chosen that is absorbed as quickly as possible. Absorption is influenced by two factors: gastric emptying and intestinal absorption. Gastric emptying is influenced by exercise intensity and the calorie content, temperature, osmolality, acidity, and volume of the beverage. Intestinal absorption is also influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of the beverage consumed.

J. Sports Drinks

Consumption of carbohydrates during exercise does not appear to be beneficial (or harmful to performance) for athletes engaged in events lasting less than 60 minutes, although it does appear to be beneficial when multiple events are performed in 1 day.

Sports drinks provide fluid, and their taste is often preferred over plain water, thereby increasing the likelihood that the athlete will consume more and meet fluid needs. If the beverage contains a dilute sodium concentration, thirst will not be satisfied as quickly, increasing the likelihood that more fluid will be consumed.

Sports drinks provide simple sugars (glucose, sucrose, fructose) or glucose polymers (longer starch units). At one time it was thought that glucose polymers were the preferred source of carbohydrate in such drinks. Because of the lower osmolality, they were thought to be absorbed faster. Although results of studies conflict, current research suggests that glucose polymers offer little advantage over simple sugars.

Another important factor to consider is calorie content. Although some studies have shown that solutions with more than 10% carbohydrate appear to be beneficial, many researchers believe that a sports drink will be more effective if it contains 6% to 10% carbohydrate, regardless of the source. Concentrations greater than this appear to hamper fluid absorption. Whether sports drinks with less than 5% carbohydrate impart any significant performance advantages is doubtful.

Some sports drinks contain electrolytes in varying amounts. Most commonly, those included are sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphorus, and/or magnesium. In general, athletes consuming a balanced diet do not need electrolyte supplementation. For most athletes, drinking dilute fruit juice after an event provides adequate electrolyte replacement, although sodium replacement may be an exception. Athletes who experience large sweat losses or who exercise for extended times in the heat may require such replacement. Most sodium losses are not difficult to replace through normal dietary intake. Sodium loss in 2 pounds

(0.9 kg) of sweat is approximately 1 g. This could be replaced with one-half teaspoon of table salt. The typical American diet contains much more sodium than this. Salt tablets are contraindicated. They are dangerous and could lead to excessive fluid losses.

Generally, for events lasting less than 60 minutes, cool water (40° to 50° F) is the preferred fluid. For events lasting longer than 60 minutes, a beverage of 6% to 10% carbohydrate may be useful. This is the concentration found in most sports drinks.

II. THE ROLE OF DIET IN ATHLETES

Many factors, including the athlete's physical condition, nutritional status, age, and genetic background, affect nutrient needs. Athletes come from many different backgrounds with widely varying beliefs regarding diet. Adolescent athletes have increased needs to support growth, and female athletes have lower basal metabolic rates than do male athletes. Diets must be individualized. Diets do not create strong bodies or increase speed. Strength, power, and endurance come only through training. The diet merely, provides the necessary raw materials that allows a good training program to improve athletic performance.

A. Weight and Body Composition

The focus of weight control in the athlete should be on body composition rather than on weight. An assessment of body fat percentage is far more useful than a simple scale weight measurement. The percentage of body fat and its complement of lean body weight should be assessed at regular intervals throughout the season so that if corrective measures such as changes in training and diet are needed, they be initiated in a timely fashion.

The body fat percentage recommended for the average man is 15 percent and for the woman, 26 percent. Body fat stores of most athletes are below these averages because extra pounds of fat create more work for the body without increasing its efficiency. Male gymnasts and runners have reported body fats as low as 5 to 8 percent, while women involved in the same sports have reported body fats of 10 to 12 percent.

B. Measuring Body Fat

In general, the percentage of body fat for male athletes should be 8 to 10 percent, and 12 to 14 percent for females. The optimal body fat percentage may vary according to the sport and the athlete. It should be strongly emphasized that many athletes perform very well at higher body fat percentages. The goal is improved athletic performance - not a specific percentage of body fat.

The amount of body fat can be calculated by the skinfold method, underwater weighing, or more recently, measuring electrical impedance flow through tissues. Underwater weighing, which requires calculating lung volume, is probably the most accurate, but it is not generally available. Skinfold calipers are less expensive and more easily obtained. Calipers are used to "pinch" the fat layer at various designated areas (triceps, subscapular, and abdominal areas). Standard values are supplied with the caliper and are used to translate caliper measurements into body fat percentage measurements. Changes in skinfold thickness are a fairly sensitive indication of changes in total body fat. Equipment to measure body fat percentage calculated by impedance flow of an electrical impulse through tissue is marketed by several companies. Charts can be used to translate impedance to percentage of body fat; many of the instruments make this calculation within the equipment, providing the trainer with a readout of total body fat - not the rate of impedance.

C. Caloric Requirements

A calorie is a measurement of energy. The energy sources in food and the body's energy expenditure can both be measured in calories. One calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water 1 degree Centigrade.

Weight maintenance is accomplished by balancing caloric intake with caloric output. Calories are provided by carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol. The number of calories in a given food reflects its energy potential. Protein and carbohydrate are equal in calories; 1 gm of each contains 4 calories. One gm of fat equals 9 calories. Alcohol falls in the middle, with 1 gm yielding 7 calories. Caloric needs per kilogram of body weight are highest in children because of the growth and development of tissues. As individuals age, their caloric needs decrease.

Body weight affects total caloric requirements because it takes more calories to maintain muscle tissue than to maintain fat. Therefore, even if two athletes weigh the same, the one with the lower percentage of body fat has higher caloric needs. Since men have less fat than women, men's caloric needs are greater.

D. Estimating Calories for Weight Loss

Each pound of body fat contains approximately 3,500 calories. Being 15 pounds "overfat" represents nearly 53,000 excess calories. If the average calorie need is 2,000 per day, then a week of total starvation would result in only a 4-pound weight loss. The body cannot exist on calories provided by fat alone; therefore, in times of starvation or very low calorie intake, the body begins to break down body protein - namely, muscle tissue.

Fat loss and maintenance of weight loss are best achieved by reducing daily intake by 500 to 1000 calories, thus promoting a loss of 1-2 pounds per week. Rapid weight losses to make weight minimums are rarely achieved through dieting but usually through water losses. These water losses can be harmful, since they make the athlete dehydrated and susceptible to muscle cramping, fatigue, weakness, and loss of concentration. The use of diuretics and laxatives for weight loss should be strongly discouraged since repeated use can be harmful.

The nature and extent of abusive weight losses by high school and college wrestlers preparing for weigh-ins has been documented by scientists. (C. Tipton, 1982) at the University of Iowa. Weight changes were monitored in 747 high school wrestlers during the 17 days prior the preseason certifying weigh-in. Six hundred and seventy-three of the wrestlers lost from 1 to 29 pounds in the 17 day period. Over 200 of the 747 athletes lost between 10 and 25 pounds. The weight losses that occur during the brief period before pre-match weigh-ins are the result primarily of water loss, that is, dehydration.

Training Diet: The primary goal of the training diet is to provide the appropriate balance of fluid and nutrients to allow the athlete to maintain optimal health and meet the demands of training. Training Diet: The primary goal of the training diet is to provide the appropriate balance of fluid and nutrients to allow the athlete to maintain optimal health and meet the demands of training.

Precompetition Diet: The precompetition diet can be divided into two phases: intake one week before the event and intake within 24 hours of the event. Precompetition Diet: The precompetition diet can be divided into two phases: intake one week before the event and intake within 24 hours of the event. Precompetition Diet: The precompetition diet can be divided into two phases: intake one week before the event and intake within 24 hours of the event.

A. Precompetition Diet for Weight Loss, Wrestling Athletes

As a wrestler, it is important to keep weight at or near performance weight. If weight stays within five to ten pounds of performance weight, an athlete should be able to lose that weight in three to five weeks without using weight loss techniques that can harm athletic performance.

NUTRITION GUIDELINES

1. When possible, choose low-fat or non-fat products such as light cream cheese, light mayonnaise, 1% or skim milk.

2. Avoid cheese, nuts, and fatty meats. All are high-fat items and add extra calories even in small portions.

3. Cut back on fried foods. Meats that are boiled, broiled, or grilled and vegetables that are boiled or steamed are better choices.

4. Remove the skin before eating chicken or turkey.

5. Use water-packed tuna.

6. Eat at least one dark green or yellow/orange vegetable every day, e.g., spinach, carrots, and tomatoes.

7. Eat a food that is a good source of vitamin C every day, e.g., orange juice, citrus fruit, kiwi, strawberries, grapefruit, bell peppers, broccoli, tomatoes.

8. Drink plenty of water.

9. Cut back on the amount of fats you add to foods, e.g., butter, margarine, mayonnaise, sour cream, regular salad dressing.

10. Eat foods that are high in complex carbohydrates often. These include starchy vegetables, legumes (beans and peas), breads, cereals and other grain foods.

HINTS FOR WEIGHT LOSS

1. Stay away from sugary snacks like soda pop, candy and other sweets. These snacks can make your weight loss program backfire.

2. Drink lots of non-caloric beverages before and during a meal. Beverages like water, tea and diet pop will help fill you up without adding calories.

3. It takes your stomach about 20 minutes to tell your brain that it is no longer hungry. Eat a low-calorie snack about 20 minutes before a meal and, like your mother says, "You'll ruin your diner." Low-calorie snacks include applies, oranges, grapes, carrots, lettuce, etc.

4. Another idea is to make the salad course last 20 minutes, or to eat slowly. It is common to eat two plates of food before you realize you are no longer hungry.

5. Make sure you are not confusing hunger with thirst. You may think you are hungry when a glass of water would satisfy your craving.

6. Keep busy, within about 10 minutes your hunger pangs usually ease up.

DRINK WATER OR OTHER DILUTE FLUIDS

1. Drink plenty of dilute fluids before, during and after events and practice sessions. Commercial fluid replacement drinks contain a small amount of

carbohydrate. Drinks like this will help maintain carbohydrate stores in the body. Stay away from fruit

juice before and during workouts - it is high in natural sugars, which can cause stomach discomfort or, for some athletes, can cause a sugar rebound.

2. Drink about 2-1/2 cups of water or dilute fluids two hours before training.

3. Drink about 2 cups of fluid 10 to 15 minutes prior to  training.

4. Drink about 1/2 cup of fluid every 10 minutes, or 1-1/2 cups every 30 minutes, during an event or practice session.

5. After a workout, drink 2 cups for every one pound of body weight lost during training. (Two cups of water weighs one pound.)

6. Don't forget to drink or eat something after training.

SAMPLE DIETS

The following sample diets can be used to achieve healthy weight loss. If you are following one of the sample diets and find you are losing weight too quickly, increase calorie amount as instructed.

WHICH DIET TO FOLLOW

In order to decide which diet to follow, you will need to know approximately how many calories your body needs each day to maintain weight. The formula below will give you an estimate of your caloric needs.

FORMULA

Step One: Multiply your weight by 11.

Example: 200 lbs. x 11 = 2200

Step Two: Multiply the product by one of the following
amounts, based on your activity level. This will give a calorie range appropriate for you.

Light 1.4 - 1.6

Moderate 1.6 - 1.8

Hard 1.8 - 2.0

Severe 2.0 - 2.8

Very Severe 3.0

Example: 2200 x 1.4 = 3088 calories

2200 x 1.6 = 3520 calories

Calorie Range: 3088 to 3520 calories per day.

Aim for about 3000 to 3500 calories per day.

Theoretically, 3500 calories is equal to a pound of fat. This means that by reducing the number of calories you eat by 500 per day, you may lose one pound per week. There are other factors that affect the rate of weight loss; however, use the above formula to estimate the calories you need for weight loss.

Once you calculate the number of calories you need, eat 500 to 1000 calories less than you need. This should result  in a one- to two-pound weight loss each week.

Reminder: It is best to lose only two pounds per week. Otherwise, you may lose muscle along with or instead of fat. A 500- to 1000-calorie change in your diet should keep your weight loss wtihin this range. If not, then switch to a lower or higher calorie diet.

B. Precompetition Diet Within 24 Hours of Competition

Immediately before an event, the primary considerations are maintenance of blood glucose and fluid status. Although some athletes prefer to perform early morning events without eating, this is not advisable. Early morning blood glucose levels are usually low because of the overnight fast that accompanies sleep. Exercise without replacement of the glucose/glycogen used during sleep can lead to earlier exhaustion and/or decreased intensity, especially in events lasting more than 60 minutes. Blood glucose is the primary fuel for the first few minutes of exercise. Low blood glucose will cause a greater reliance on glycogen and may lead to decreased performance through quicker glycogen depletion.

EFFECTS OF DIETARY INTAKE BEFORE EVENTS OF VARIOUS LENGTHS

Take solid foods 3 to 4 hours prior to an event. High intake of protein foods such as steak and eggs do not give the athlete extra energy; nor do they prevent muscle injury. In fact, high-protein, high-fat foods cause increased stress on the kidneys and take a long time to digest. Foods to avoid include: hamburgers, hot dogs, cheese crisp, sausage, peanut butter, deep-fried or fried foods like doughnuts, french fries, hash browns, chips, condiments like mayonnaise, regular salad dressing, cream cheese, margarine or butter.

A pre-event meal rich in carbohydrates is best. Plan a meal consisting of high-carbohydrate, either in solid form or in a liquid formula.

Take liquid meals 2 to 3 hours prior to an event. They should be low in fat and high in carbohydrate, with some vitamins and minerals added. Some examples of liquid meals are Nutriment, Sustacal, and Instant Breakfast.

Do not ingest foods and beverages high in sugar within 1 hour of the start of competition. Sugars taken at the start of a match stimulate insulin production and therefore actually cause an accelerated use of glycogen supplies. Take adequate fluids to ensure hydration. Unsweetened beverages may be taken within 15 to 30 minutes of competition.

Supplemental carbohydrate during the event is not necessary for events lasting less than 60 minutes. For longer events or multiple-event, day-long activities, endurance and performance may be improved through carbohydrate consumption during the events. Carbohydrate intake during exercise is a major consideration in ultra-endurance events and long-duration endurance events such as marathons.

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